Chiwembu: Kukayika Kukayikira

“Kukayikira chilichonse kapena kukhulupirira chilichonse ndi njira zofananira; zonsezi zimafunikira kusinkhasinkha, ”analemba motero katswiri wamasamu komanso wafilosofi kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1800 Henri Poincaré ( Sayansi ndi Hypothesis (Agal. 1905). Kwa wasayansi, pali "ukoma pokayika," monga kukayika, kusatsimikizika, komanso kukayikira koyenera ndizofunikira pa njira yasayansi (Allison et al., Wasayansi waku America , 2018). Sayansi, pambuyo pa zonse, imayendetsedwa ndi "kusaka komanso mawonekedwe osamveka" (Rozenblit ndi Keil, Sayansi Yachidziwitso , 2002).

Nthawi zina ngakhale kuli ena omwe amapezerapo mwayi ndikusankha kukayika mosayenera (Allison et al., 2018; Lewandowsky et al., Sayansi Yamaganizidwe, 2013). Izi ndizo osakayikira oyambitsa omwe amagwiritsa ntchito "science against science" kuti apange mikangano. Amanyoza kufunikira kwakusayansi kwachikaiko mwa kuzitsutsa dala, monga, mwachitsanzo, ndi iwo omwe amakana kusintha kwanyengo (Goldberg ndi Vandenberg, Ndemanga pa Environmental Health, 2019).

"Kukayikira ndi chinthu chathu" idakhala mantra yamakampani opanga fodya (Goldberg ndi Vandenberg, 2019). Makampani ena adayesa kugwiritsa ntchito njira zalamulo pogwiritsa ntchito matenda osocheretsa (mwachitsanzo, kunena za "mphumu ya mgodi" osati matenda owopsa a "mapapu akuda"); kuphatikiza maphunziro abwino ndi maphunziro ofooka; Kulemba "akatswiri" osagwirizana ndi zofuna zawo kapena zolinga zawo; kutaya kukayika kwinakwake (mwachitsanzo, kusunthira cholakwa kuchokera ku shuga kupita ku mafuta pomwe zonse ziwiri zitha kukhala zovulaza); deta yosankha chitumbuwa kapena kuletsa zotsatira zowononga; ndikugunda ad hominem kuukira asayansi omwe angayerekeze kunena zowona ku mphamvu (Goldberg ndi Vandenberg, 2019).

Malo okhala ndi kukayikira ndi malo omwe akhazikika pakukhazikitsa malingaliro achiwembu, makamaka potengera intaneti. Tsopano tadzazidwa ndi "zidziwitso" (Sunstein ndi Vermeule, Journal of Political Philosophy , 2009), "infodemic," titero (Teovanovic et al., Ntchito Psychology Yoganizira, 2020), momwe "udindo wowonera" wazofalitsa kulibenso (Butter, Chikhalidwe Cha Zolinganiza , S. Howe, womasulira, 2020). Komanso, intaneti imakhala ngati intaneti chipinda cha echo (Butter, 2020; Wang neri Al., ZachikhalidweSayansi & Mankhwala , 2019) kotero kuti kufotokozera mobwerezabwereza, zikuwoneka ngati zowona, chinthu chomwe chimatchedwa chowonadi chabodza (Brashier ndi Marichi, Kuwunika Kwaka pachaka kwa Psychology , 2020), ndipo pomwe zimatsimikizira zomwe tidakhulupirira (mwachitsanzo, kukondera kutsimikizira) . Kukayika kumasintha ndikukhala otsimikiza.

Kodi chiwembu ndi chiyani? Ndi kukhudzika kuti gulu lili ndi zolinga zoyipa. Malingaliro achiwembu amawerengedwa kuti ndi achikhalidwe ponseponse, ofala, osati matenda ayi (van Prooijen ndi van Vugt, Maganizo pa Psychological Science, 2018). M'malo mongobwera chifukwa chodwala matenda amisala kapena "zopanda nzeru," atha kuwonetsa zomwe amati epistemology yolumala , mwachitsanzo, zambiri zakukonza zochepa (Sunstein ndi Vermeule, 2009).

Malingaliro achiwembu akhala akuchulukira m'mbiri yonse, ngakhale amakhala "mafunde otsatizana," omwe nthawi zambiri amalimbikitsidwa ndi zipolowe (Hofstadter, Maonekedwe a Paranoid mu Ndale zaku America , Kusindikiza kwa 1965). Ziwembu, zimachitikadi (mwachitsanzo, chiwembu chofuna kupha Julius Caesar), koma posachedwapa, kutchula chinthu chabodza chimakhala ndi tanthauzo lonyodola, kulisalaza ndikuchisintha (Butter, 2020).

Ziwembu zili ndi zosakaniza zina: Chilichonse chalumikizidwa, ndipo palibe chomwe chimangochitika mwangozi; mapulani amakhala achinsinsi komanso obisika; gulu la anthu likukhudzidwa; ndipo zolinga zomwe gululi akuti ndizovulaza, zowopseza, kapena zonyenga (van Prooijen ndi van Vugt, 2018). Pali chizolowezi chodzudzula ndi kukhazikitsa malingaliro a "ife-otsutsana nawo" omwe atha kubweretsa ziwawa (Douglas, Spanish Journal of Psychology , 2021; Andrade, PA Mankhwala, Zaumoyo ndi Philosophy, ZOTHANDIZA ZOTHANDIZA Ziwembu zimapangitsa tanthauzo, kuchepetsa kusatsimikizika, ndikugogomezera bungwe la anthu (Butter, 2020).

Wafilosofi Karl Popper anali m'modzi mwa oyamba kugwiritsa ntchito liwu munjira zamakono pomwe adalemba za "olakwitsa" chiwembu chiphunzitso cha anthu , kuti zoyipa zilizonse zomwe zimachitika (mwachitsanzo, nkhondo, umphawi, ulova) ndi zotsatira zachindunji za malingaliro a anthu oyipa (Popper, Open Society ndi Adani ake (1945, 1945). M'malo mwake, atero a Popper, pali "zotsatira zosayembekezereka" kuchokera ku mwadala zochita za anthu.

M'nkhani yake yakale kwambiri, Hofstadter adalemba kuti anthu ena ali ndi kalembedwe kofananira momwe amawonera dziko lapansi. Adasiyanitsa kalembedwe kameneka, kamene kamawonedwa mwa anthu wamba, kuchokera kwa omwe amapatsidwa matenda amisala, ngakhale onse atakhala "otenthedwa, okayikira, opitilira muyeso, opitilira muyeso, komanso opocalyptic."

Munthu wokhudzidwa ndi zamankhwala, komabe, amawona dziko "loipa komanso lachiwembu" motsutsana naye makamaka, pomwe iwo omwe ali ndi mawonekedwe amisala amawona kuti akutsata njira yamoyo kapena dziko lonse. Omwe ali ndi mawonekedwe amisala atha kupeza umboni, koma nthawi zina "zovuta", amapanga "chidwi chododometsa cha malingaliro," mwachitsanzo, "... kuchokera pazosatsutsika mpaka zosakhulupirika" (Hofstadter, 1965). Kuphatikiza apo, iwo amene amakhulupirira chiphunzitso chimodzi chachiwembu amatha kukhulupilira ena, ngakhale osagwirizana (van Prooijen ndi van Vugt, 2018).

Malingaliro achiwembu akayamba kugwira ntchito, "amakhala ovuta kuwononga" ndipo amakhala ndi "kudzisindikiza okha": Chofunika kwambiri ndikuti "ali olimbana kwambiri ndi kukonzedwa" (Sunstein ndi Vermeule, 2009). "Munthu wokhutira ndi munthu wovuta kusintha. Muuzeni kuti simukugwirizana ndipo akutembenukira kwina ... Kondwerani ndi malingaliro ndipo amalephera kuwona zomwe mukunena," a Stanley Schachter ndi a Leon Festinger omwe ndi akatswiri azamaganizidwe a anthu adalemba mu kafukufuku wawo wosangalatsa womwe umakhudza olowerera gulu lomwe atsogoleri awo, achenjezedwa ndi mauthenga otumizidwa ndi "opambana" ochokera ku pulaneti lina, adalosera za kutha kwa dziko. Atakumana ndi "umboni wosatsimikizika wosatsimikizika," omwe anali mgululi omwe amathandizidwa ndi anzawo adachepetsa kusokonezeka kwawo ndikukhala ndi nkhawa pofotokoza chifukwa chomwe kunenerako sikunachitike ndipo "adakulitsa kutsimikiza kwawo," kuphatikiza kufunafuna otembenuka mtima mwatsopano ( Festinger et al., Ulosi Ukakanika , 1956).

Kodi nchifukwa ninji malingaliro achiwembu amatsutsana chonama? Ife ndife ovuta kuzindikira: Ambiri aife timakonda kuyankha zosinkhasinkha m'malo moti chinyezimiro ndipo pewani kuganiza mozama chifukwa ndizovuta kutero (Pennycook ndi Rand, Zolemba Za Umunthu , 2020). Timakonda kuyang'ana pazomwe zimayambitsa ndikupeza tanthauzo ndi zochitika pazochitika zilizonse ngati njira yodzimvera otetezeka m'dera lathu (Douglas et al., Mayendedwe Apano mu Psychological Science , 2017). Kuphatikiza apo, timaganiza kuti timamvetsetsa dziko lapansi ndi "tsatanetsatane, mgwirizano, ndi kuzama" -kutchedwa chinyengo cha tanthauzo lakuwunika— kuposa momwe timachitira (Rozenblit ndi Keil, 2002).

Mfundo yofunika: Malingaliro achiwembu akhala akupezeka m'mbiri yonse ndipo amapezeka ponseponse. Omwe amakhulupirira sakhala opanda nzeru kapena osokonezeka m'maganizo, koma kuwakhulupirira kumatha kubweretsa chiwawa, kusintha zinthu mopitilira muyeso, ndi malingaliro a "ife-otsutsana nawo". Posachedwa, atenga tanthauzo lonyodola. Chosowa chathu chaumunthu kuti tiwone zochitika pazochitika zilizonse mosavomerezeka komanso pazomwe kulibe zimatipangitsa kuti tizikopeka nawo.

Kukhulupirira malingaliro achiwembu kumakhala kolimba ndipo makamaka sikungakonzedwe. Intaneti imapanga chipinda chobwerezera momwe kubwereza kumabweretsa chinyengo cha chowonadi. M'derali, kukayika kulikonse kumatha kusinthika kukhala kukhudzika.

Tithokoze mwapadera Dr. David B. Allison, Dean wa Sukulu Yazaumoyo, Indiana University, Bloomington, poyang'anira mawu a Poincaré.